I, therefore, request, and I would be grateful, that an examination by the prison physician be ordered so that I will obtain full clarity as to whether the Defendant Rudolf Brandt is still able to attend the courtroom sessions.
THE PRESIDENT: Counsel should make his application in writing so that the matter will become a matter of record. Counsel will prepare an application and hand it to the Tribunal at any time prior to the morning recess. The matter will then be considered.
DR. KAUFMANN: Thank you very much.
DR. NELTE: May it please the Tribunal, at the end of yesterday afternoon's session I had started to read the affidavit of Dr. BeckerFreyseng with regard, to the complex of questions regarding sea-water experiments. The affidavit which I presented before of Professor Schroeder, as you will recall, refers to the time of 1 July 1944 until January 1945 when Professor Schroeder became Medical Officer Inspector of the Luftwaffe. Dr. Freyseng previously belonged to the medical Inspectorate of the Luftwaffe in a position which enabled him, and enables him today, to give a judgment about the relationship between the Chief of the Wehrmacht Medical Service and the Medical Inspectorate of the Luftwaffe. Dr. Becker-Freyseng had given to the prosecution affidavit Number NO 448 which is Exhibit 81 and in this affidavit the following is stated under No. 6:
"Handloser, as Inspector of the Wehrmacht Medical Service, had to be fully acquainted with the research work done by Army, Navy, and Luftwaffe. We had orders to report to these gentlemen on all research assignments of the scientists working for us, so that duplication of work might be avoided."
In connection with this, Dr. Becker-Freyseng has given the following affidavit which I shall offer and present as Document HA. 23. It is contained on page 32 of Document Book II. It will have Exhibit No. 34. In his affidavit, Dr. Becker-Freyseng states the following:
"The interpretation which the Prosecution gave this part of my affidavit prompts me, in order to avoid misunderstanding and wrong conclusions, upon request of the Defense Counsel of Professor Handloser, to make the following explanation:
"1. The contents of No. 6 of the affidavit were never the subject of the questioning in the previous interrogations. When the interrogator, in the presence of Mr. McHaney, gave me an English copy of the affidavit to sign, which was supposed to be a summary of the interrogations and which had been formulated by the Prosecution, I told him especially in respect to Nos. 5 and 6, that because of the general formulation of these sections I had to make explanations. Mr. McHaney told me that I could make explanations later. Thereupon I signed. I was not given any opportunity later to explain No. 6 cf the affidavit.
"On the question of Professor Dr. Handloser's jurisdiction as Chief of the Wehrmacht Medical Service concerning the research work done by the Luftwaffe, I state:
"a) Research performed by the Luftwaffe was not subordinate to the Chief of the Wehrmacht Medical Service; it was not among the "joint" tasks of the Wehrmacht Medical Service. Therefore no report was made to the Chief of the Wehrmacht Medical Service.
"b) No. 6 deals only with the period after the Office for Science and Research had been established under Professor Karl Brandt. At this period we must distinguish between the research done in the Luftwaffe's own institutes. Only concerning the latter report was made to Professor Rostock, consisting of sending a copy of the research assignments to Professor Rostock and to the Chief of the Wehrmacht Medical Service. This research assignment, however, did not contain any information about the methods to be applied.
"c) The sea water experiments were not the result of a research assignment. Therefore the Chief of the Wehrmacht Medical Service did not receive any copy.
"2. The words:
'Handloser, as Inspector of the Wehrmacht Medical Service, had to be fully acquainted with the research work done by Any, Navy, and Luftwaffe,' in this general form are incorrect.
They refer to the following sentence and are meant to express what I have said above under No. 1.
"3. Moreover, when I spoke of Handloser, I did not mean Prof. Dr. Handloser personally but his office, which, according to the contents of the copies of research assignments sent it from the end of 1943 on, would hardly have had any reason to submit such things to the Chief of the Wehrmacht Medical Service himself, but only to the section chief in charge."
I request to admit this affidavit as Exhibit 34.
SIEGFRIED HANDLOSER - (Resumed) DIRECT EXAMINATION - (Cont'd.)BY DR. NELTE:
Q May it please the Tribunal, I have only a brief question with regard to the bone and muscle regeneration and bone transplantations. The Document Book does not mention the name of Handloser and his office so that I only want to ask if he knows anything about the experiments which were carried out at the Ravensbrueck Concentration Camp or if he received any reports about them?
A. No.
Q On the occasion Of the conference cf the Consulting Physicians, did you hear any lecture on this subject?
A No. This subject was not discussed at any conference.
Q The question of the experiments within the framework of hepatitus research must be considered as concluded by the interrogation of Prof. Dr. Gutzeit and your testimony, as far as it might contribute to the general clarification in this case. May it please the Tribunal, in this connection I only want to refer to Document NO-371. This is again an affidavit of the Defendant Rudolf Brandt, which states the following:
"Handloser and Schroeder also must have been informed about the fact that Haagen and Dohmen were physicians in the Army Medical Service and the Robert Koch Institute." This affidavit is Exhibit 186 of the Prosecution. In connection with this I submit an affidavit by the Defendant Rudolf Brandt, Document HA-11. It is on page 17 of Document Book No. 2, and Brandt states the following:
"In my affidavit of 14 October 1946 I mentioned a Dr. Dohmen and described his as 'A doctor of the Army Medical Service and of the Robert Koch institute.'
"In this connection I declare that I, myself, did not use this formulation but that it was suggested to me by the Prosecution. I did not know Dr. Domen personally and I do not recollect having known where he worked, what his functions were, and to whom he was subordinated.
"If I said in this affidavit: 'Handloser must have been informed about that,' it was a mere assumption. I cannot cite any facts which prove or suggest that Prof. Dr. Handloser knew of such things."
I request that this affidavit be admitted as Exhibit 35.
I now come to a point of the indictment which was not contained in the original indictment. Within its presentation the Prosecution has presented Document Book 11 all about the Polygal Experiments. In this Document Book the name of the Defendant Handloser or one of his offices is not mentioned either. However, in the course of his presentation the prosecutor has claimed that the Defendant Handloser was connected with the pectin research. In the session of 2 January 1947, the prosecutor stated the following with reference to Sievers' Diary, "The Ahnenerbre." That was Document No. 3346-PS and I quote:
"2 SS Hauptsturmfuchrer Dr. Floetner."
In connection with this, according to the record, the Prosecution made the following remark, and I quote: "The Research Institute was subordinated to the Defendant Handloser"--to which fact he had already referred, previously in the course of the trial. I am now asking you, was an institute with the name of Institute for German Eastern Research at Krakow--was this institute subordinated to you?
A It was never subordinated to me.
Q Do you know this institute?
A No.
Q Since the Prosecution apparently wanted to prove a connection of Prof. Handloser here with the Ahnenerbe Institute, a part of the SS, I have asked the Defendant Sievers to determine here if, and in what place in this Diary the name of the Defendant Handloser appears and if he had any contact with the Ahnenerbe and with this Institute for Eastern Research. I are now offering Document HA-15 on page 23 of Document Book No. 2. I request that it be admitted as Exhibit 36.
Dr. Wolfram Sievers states the following:
"The Prosecution submitted my diary 'Ahnenerbe' (Document 3546-PS) in evidence.
"Concerning the co-defendant Prof. Dr. Handloser, I state categorically that there was no connection or collaboration between him and me, or the offices to which I belonged, either officially or privately; I did not know Pro.f. Handloser personally prior to this trial.
"Since the name Prorf. Dr. Handloser appears in two different places in my diary, I consider it my duty to state that no connection or collaboration with Prof. Dr. Handloser resulted in either case.
"1) Entry: 2 February 1944:
Conference with Professor Hirt in Strasbourg:
Influenza vaccination by Prof. Haagen. Influenza vaccination, successfully carried out in municipal hospital by Prof. Haagen was rejected by Prof. Handloser for use in the Wehrmacht. Report requested for submission to the Reichsfuehrer SS.
Notation by Dr. Sievers:
Prof. Hirt told me this with the remark that he considered this matter very significant and, contrary to Prof. Handloser, he was of the opinion that this vaccination should be introduced at least in the SS. That is why he asked for a report from Prof. Haagen for the purpose of submission to the Reichsfuehrer SS.
"2) Entry: 3 February 1944.
Conference in Strasbourg with Prof. Weber, Wehrmacht biologist; our support of their institute requested. Weber recommended, therefore letter to Commissioner General Prof. Dr. Brandt through me. Weber is to be informed how similar letter is to be sent to Prof. Handloser.
Notation by Dr. Sievers:
Prof. Weber, head of the Reich League for Biology and Chief of the Department of Biology in the 'Ahnenerbe' He mentioned especially in regard to questions concerning replacements, that no was very much interested in Wehrmacht biologists which were discussed at that time. As responsible leader of the biologists he should like to get in touch with men who show understand ing and are likely to help his plans.
He considered especially suited the aforementioned names and was of the opinion that it might be advantageous.
if at the time Professor Meyer, the head of the Department of Biology in the Reich Research Council, should also approach them. It was decided that he address a letter to Professor Brandt through me in order to enable us that the like letter by Professor Meyer may be added.
"Professor Handloser was so completely unknown to me that I was unable to give any information about him; that is the reason why Professor Weber asked me to inquire at Professor Meyer. As far as I remember, no such letter however, was ever written.
"On 2 January the prosecution cited, when reading the document book about hemostat "Polygal", from my diary (Ahnenerbe) one quotation of the 26th and 31st May 1944, regarding a conference with Dr. Grauer of the Reich Research Council and with Dr. Ploetner:
"Poctine research at the institute for German East Research in Cracow.
"The Prosecutor described this quotation as very interesting, because this Institute was under the defendant Handloser. This entry therefore prove that he was familiar with the 'Polygal' matter.
"The institute for German East Research in Cracow was connected with the Reich Research Council and with Professor Theisen, the Chief of the Depart ment for Inorganic Chemistry and Electroclamistry of the Reich Research Council. Its manager and, at the same time, Thiessen's and the Reich Research Council's deputy, was Dr. Pietsch.
"Professor Handloser definitely had nothing to do with this Institute, nor did I ever hear his name in connection with it. This Institute was not under the OKW either.
"It is quite apparent that this is one of the many confusions or constructed artofacts of the prosecution trying to establish a connection of people and facts where actually none existed."
I now request that the affidavit be admitted as Exhibit No. 36.
And, finally, the prosecution in excess of the indictment has offered Documents No. 1308 and No. 1309 about the question of bacteriological warfar These documents are not contained in any document books and I shall in a few minutes give you the exhibit numbers.
These documents also do not mention Dr. Handloser's name, however, a medical officer is mentioned here as Stabsarzt Dr. Klieve, who had several functions and among other things he had the work of the Army Medical Inspectorate with the Military Medical Academy with the Weapons and Armament Office No. 9. The Documents are Prosecution Exhibits No 325 and No. 326. In connection with this I should like to ask you the following questions who was or who is Professor Klieve?
A When in January, 1941 I stated in my office as Army Medical Inspector I met among the medical officers of the Army Inspectorate, Professor Dr. Klieve. He was personally known to me from the year 1922 when I was studying at the Military Medical Clinic at Giessen when I was assigned there as Stabsarzt. At that time, he was a medical practitioner at the same clinic to which I belonged. Since the year of 1922 I did not see him again until the year 1941. At the outbreak of the war, he had been called into the Army Medical Inspectorate by my predecessor, Dr. Waldmann and there he was to deal with the medical aspects of bacteriological warfare.
Q To whom was Professor Klieve subordinate?
A In his medical activities and as medical officer, he was subordinate to me as the Army Medical Inspector and in his activities as medical consultant and advisor and specialist, he was subordinate to the Armament Office to the Department Wa Pruf 9 where he also received his assignments.
Q Was the head of this office in the Wau Pruf, Colonel Hirsch?
A Yes.
Q What were the assignments which Professor Klieve had to carry out in this position?
A First of all, Professor Klieve had all the publications and Professio al literature of the foreign countries and he had to evaluate them and use them in order to find out, as far as this was at all possible, what work as being done in this field by the foreign powers and what point of view they maintained in each case, what intentions and conclusions could be drawn from it and what preventive measures could be taken against such potential meaaure In this case, it was a question of protecting the people against some potential bacteriological warfare.
Q What was the status of this work in 1941 when you entered your office as Army Medical Inspector?
AAs far as I can remember, this work was in a very early stage and they had to work on a new basis, which had been discovered in France in the course of the French campaign and which furthermore gave us a good insight into the work which was done by the foreign countries in this field; for example also in the United States.
Q Did you officially participate in this work?
AAs Army Medical Inspector, I had neither a decisive position nor a decisive influence and I was informed by Professor Klieve about the progress of the work only insofar that I received reports at very large intervals of time and without these reports dealing with any details. Through the Department Wa Pruf 9 and with Colonel Hirsch I did not have any contact and I have never belonged to any working group at any time. I did not belong to the working group Bleitzalbleiter, which has repeatedly been mentioned here.
Q Now, without any doubt, the question of bacteriological warfare and preventive measures must have at one time been discussed within your field of competence and you, as Army Medical Inspector and Chief of the Army Medical Service, must have at one time or another have voiced your personal viewpoint in this question; will you please toll us your personal opinion?
AAs to the intention to engage in an active bacteriological warfare on the part of the German Wehrmacht, no information has ever been available to me, either officially or through other channels, however, since throughout the war it could be seen from the literature of foreign countries that this question played a part in all countries and that on some occasions considerable work was being done in this field, it of course was my natural duty to occupy myself with all possible measures in order to prevent this warfare from being carried out.
There were preventive measures and they were primarily for the Wehrmacht itself and secondarily, they were also intended for the civilian population.
Furthermore, Professor Klieve throughout the war was informed of the fact that I personally, with regard to the question of bacteriological warfare, maintained a completely negative point of view. In order to use some banal word which I have expressed on the subject, I would like to mention here that I have always said to my collaborators that in my opinion bacteriological warfare for the next few years in any case would be a still-born child. I have also emphasized that I did not want to obstruct Dr. Klieve's zealousness in his work, because the work and counter measures were urgently necessary and I believe that he understood me quite correctly.
Q Do you know the opinions of the chiefs of the German leadership with regarding bacteriological warfare?
A. I know that the Fuehrer repeatedly did not only express, but that he also ordered, that active bacteriological warfare would be completely out of question for the German Wehrmacht. On one occasion it was also stated that the Fuehrer had made a statement to the effect that the preventive work should only be carried out to a very limited extent because he did not approve of the whole matter.
Q And what was the point of view of Keitel, Brauchitsch and Halder?
A Field Marshal Keitel and my superior, Brauchitsch and with the chief of the General Staff Halder, this question was never discussed. However, I can recall that the Quartermaster General, General Wagner, discussed the subject with me an one occasion and he asked me if this was a matter which would cause us a lot of worry in the circumstances and then I informed him to the effect that in the literature, this work was constantly being mentioned; that I, on the other hand, maintained the personal point of view that we need not worry about it, and when he asked me why not, I replied from the medical point of view the danger was so great for everybody who might engage in this type of warfare for his own territory and for his own troops, I always had the impression that our military leaders were not in favor of this entire type of a bacteriological warfare as a weapon, and that they did not have a very favorable attitude on the subject.
I can also remember that on one occasion I went with Klieve to the new chief of the General Staff, Zeissler, who was to be informed about everything and what we were working on; that we reported to him and that Zeissler showed very little interest, and he showed so little interest that I actually felt sorry for Klieve on that occasion.
Q Did you know that Prof. Blome received an assignment on that field?
A I must state the following in that connection: In June or July of 1943 I, in my capacity as chief cf the Wehrmacht Medical Service, received a letter with the letterhead Reich Research Council, Commissioner of Plenipotentiary for Cancer Research. There I was invited to attend a conference in Berlin at certain date.
I then went to Berlin, accordingly, coming from the Fuehrer's headquarters, and since we were to discuss cancer research I had also brought along my consulting surgeon, Rostock.
The conference took place in Blome's office, and besides him the following persons were present, Ministerial Dirigent Schumann, the Veterinary General Richter and one or two more men, but I cannot remember the exact number anymore.
Dr. Blome opened the conference with a statement that the discussion was to be about bacteriological warfare and that he had received an assignment by Reich Marshal Goering to carry out preventive work and to put it on a breader basis. He also stated that by virtue of this order he was now asking us, and the order may also have stated that he was to actively include himself, but I do not remember that exactly anymore--therefore, he was asking us to give him some brief reports about the status of the defense work and also about the basis and reports which we had received about the work which was being done abroad.
I was the first one to take the stand, and then I stated, that first of all this did not fall within my field of competence, and secondly, I did not have the authority to discuss such work which had been done in the military field and to give any information about the subject without first having received the permission from my superior, Field Marshal Keitel. I also asked him if perhaps he had received a letter stating that Keitel approved of my making a statement on the subject. However, since this was not the case I once more declared myself unable to give him any information whats ever. The other members of the Wehrmacht, Field Marshal General Richter and Ministerial Dirigent Schumann also agreed with my opinion.
Blome then said that of course he could quite understand our point of view and that now he would have to make a return journey, which would of course take some time. This was regrettable because he also had been informed to the effort that at certain places abroad an increase in the work which was being done on this field could be determined.
I can also remember that he made the statement that he actually intended to also include the German press in order to point out to the masses the large danger which might arise in the circumstances. Then, as the only statement which I made during that conference, I stated to Blome that in my opinion I had to warn him of carrying out that intention at this time and even at a later period of time, because now, in the year 1943, As a result of the air attacks and as a result of the fear of phosphorus which really played a major part with the people, and as a result of the incidents during the first half year in 1943 where already there was some unrest which could be felt in the people, that they should be protected from these new fears under all circumstances. Furthermore, the whole problem was not suitable for discussion in the daily press. Blome acknowledged that and then he broke off the conference.
Q Now, what did you do on your part with regard to your military superiors?
A From my office I immediately established contact by telephone with Field Marshal Keitel, and I briefly reported the course of the conference to him, and I reported to him what I had told Blome. Then he briefly said over the telephone, "I agree with you, but since the Reich Marshal is included, send me a written report about this immediately so that I will havo that in hand." I did that. When, after some time, about eight or ten days may have passed, I told him once more that in my opinion there was no urgent necessity at all and that it was not appropriate to follow this now procedure. I had the impression that he agreed with me. However, a short time afterwards I received an order which read approximately as fellows:
The Reich Marshal has decided in the matter of bacteriological warfare that the representatives of the Wehrmacht which attended the conference in June, are to give the necessary information not Dr. Blome who is acting on my orders.
I sent this letter to the Army Medical Inspectorate for compliance with Keitel's order, and with that the whole incident was completed for me. At large intervals then I found out from Klieve that aside from the conferences which took place at Amt Office 9 and which took place at very large intervals that nothing of particular importance had happened there.
Q. Have you spoken with Dr. Blome once more no afterwards, or have corresponded, with him on this matter?
A. I have not corresponded with Blome on this matter nor did I ** any discussing with him after June. I saw tin again once more. That was after January, 1945, or it may have been February, 1945. I saw him in Belitz in connection with another matter, and I only know we briefly touched on the subject. I think briefly it was touched on by both of us, Blome as well as myself, that now with the prosecute state of affairs, the fear of bacteriological warfare which night be a plied by the crony w s now finally over.
Q. In the trial before the International Military Tribunal, the frequently-mentioned Generalarzt Schreiber was also mentioned in connection with this subject. Will you us what was Schroiber's attitude, in your opinion, with regard to bacteriological warfare?
A. His attitude was also a negative one.
Q. He has also expressed that here on the witness stand and, fur ther, that you had supported him in that respect. The question of bacteriological warfare is important for our case also because in the cross examination of Dr. Karl Brandt, the Prosecutor asked the question, "Do you know of an order by Keitel that no experiments should be carried cut on human beings?"
A. I have never discussed this question with Keitel.
Q. The question is still symptomatic because tic Prosecution is trying to express the fact that knowledge existed that experiments were being carried out on human beings in that connection.
I am now asking you have you over discussed the problem of experiments on human beings with your superior in this connection or in any ether connection?
A. No.
Q. I am now coming to another chapter, namely, that of the influence of the National Socialist ideology. General Taylor in his big opening speech has stated that the crimes in this case had their original in the National Socialist ideology.
In a part of the statements which is not unimportant, he deals with the direct effects of National Socialism an medicine. That is on page 96 of the record. Since the National Socialist ideology here is in a certain sense described as responsible for certain things which have been presented here-I must assume in connection with the statements by General Taylor-I must ask you now the following question: were you a member of the NSDAP?
A. No.
Q. Were you a member of the SS?
A. No.
Q. Did you belong to the Reich League of Physicians?
A. No.
Q. Did you belong to any other organization of the Party?
A. No.
Q. What was your attitude toward the Party, towards the ideology and the effects of National Socialism?
A. As I have already stated, I was from 1904 until the end of the war constantly on active military duty, and like most men of my age on the basis of the experiences which I had collect during a long period of time, I had always maintained the point of view that the professional soldier --- and that also includes the medical officers -- should be kept out of Party politics and politics altogether, Accordingly, I have never occupied myself with Party politics throw out the time in excess of what a well-educated human being must know about the happenings in the world and also abut politics.
As is also shown by the history of my life, through the many office and through the necessity of establishing new agencies, I have had so much work that I did not even have any time, or that I did not even feel like occupying myself with politics. Whenever I had time, I used it in order to continue my studies of literature, and if any spare time remained, I occupied myself with my favorite hobby, named music.
I played also and availed myself of all opportunities to attend an opera or a concert, and in this way I kept completely out of Party politics.
Q. Have you ever had any contact with Hitler?
A. After I had become a medical inspector in January 1941, I had to report to the Fuehrers in March. After this period of time, I have only had a direct contact with him once more. That was in August or September of 1944. I had to report to him together with Professor Brandt, and there we discussed the organizational question of the health leadership. Otherwise I did not have any direct contact with him.
Q. In December, 1941, Hitler became Supreme Commander of the Army, and you are alleged to have frequently been received by Brauchitsch and reported to him. How was it that Hitler became Supreme Commander of the Army?
A. This connection was, unfortunately, to our greatest regret completely interrupted. I can only say that we of the Army from the very moment of the dismissal of Field Marshal Brauchitsch in a practical sense did not have a Commander-in Chief at all anymore, while, for example, the Luftwaffe was represented by Georing, the Navy by Raedor and Doonitz, the SS by Himmler, and all of these branches had very powerful representatives in these men.
In the case of the Army the office of the Commander-in-Chief had been term into several pieces and now various leaders had obtained control over the different pieces. While I reported in detail to Brauchitsch at least once in two weeks and I could take all my suggestions and fears to him -- I know personally that quite open ly cared for his sick and injured soldiers and was very much interested in the Medical Service -- suck immediate possibility of exercising any influence ended for me as Army Medical Inspector, and all my influence ended toward the end of 1941. From that time on, I had to turn over my suggestions to the Quartermaster General, and I do not know in what form or to what extent he brought these matters to the knowledge of the Fuehrer.
Q. On the occasion of the conversation which you had with Hitler did you discuss research questions?
A. No.
Q. What was your contact and what was your relationship?
A. I visited the Reichsfuehrer-SS on one occasion at the time what he was already Commander-in-Chief of the reserve amry. That was in August, 1944. I visited at him headquarters in order to at a discussion where the distribution of physicians was discussed. The question was discussed how replacements could be procured for the army units. Otherwise, I did not have any other contacts with Himmler.
Q. Officially. And personally?
A. I did not have any personal contacts with him at all.
Q What contacts did you have with Goering?
A In the winter of 1943 I reported to Goering together with the Medical Chief of the Luftwaffe and the Navy, at his Headquarters in the Romingter Heide where in the end, we also discussed the question that the medical officers would have to be equally distributed; that coordination with regard to the time factor should be made between the front and the homeland. At that time, he stated that he had heard that women medical officers were still at the front when they should be at home, and similar matter. That was the only discussion which I had with Reichsmarshall Goering.
Q I now want to refer once more to Himmler. Did you ever attend a lecture by Himmler?
A Yes, I attended it in the year 1943. The Commander in Chief of the Reserve Army, his name was Bromm, together with the Army Corps Area Commanders, had been ordered to attend a series of lectures at Bad Schachen on Lake Constance. I was also ordered to attend as Army Medical Inspector. I only want to say this in order to have the record complete.
Q What relationship did you have with Bormann?
A None, whatsoever.
Q Well, Bormann, in a certain way is a representative of the Party. Did the Party agencies attempt to gain influence and to intervene in the medical field in the sense of drawing it away from the medical profession's rules, as they used to be applied?
A It was not the withdrawal of the medical rules but it was quite a clear procedure that the Party expressed its opinion that our medical replacements received too little or no political training which was given to all other students. In connection with this, I must state that we of the Wehrmacht had organized the students in the so-called student companies; they were soldier, who had been at the front a year and a half, and who had distinguished themselves there; they received permission to continue their studios but they remained soldiers, and we had organized then into the so-called student companies, whose leader was a medical officer and a university lecturer. We also billited them together in a block of barracks in some community. Until 1944, they included approximately 15,000 medical students.